Chromium VI

Chromium VI in the form of Zinc Chromate in paint, is often a hazard on ships and industrial metal structures.

Chromium compounds occur mainly in two valency sates, trivalent Cr III and hexavalent Cr VI. Chromium III is much less toxic than Cr VI. The respiratory tract is the major target organ for Cr VI toxicity for acute and chronic inhalation exposures.

Apart from use as zinc chromate on ships, Chromium and its compounds are used for making steel, electroplating, the manufacture of dyes and pigments, leather and wood preservation, and in cooling tower water. Chromium is a naturally occurring essential nutrient involved in glucose, protein and fat metabolism. Exposure to excess Chromium is ranked as in the worst 10% of compounds hazardous to ecosystems and human health.

Zinc chromate dust is distinctively yellow. As a dry film it is inert and presents no risks provided it is not disturbed by sanding, grinding and welding activities. The dust has the potential to cause short term skin irritations, rashes, ulcers and irritation of the eyes, ears, nose and throat. There is sufficient evidence to establish a causal association between human exposure to zinc chromate dust and cancer.

The method for dealing with zinc chromate and leaded paints is the same, and work should be conducted in accordance with Australian Standard for removal of lead based paints, AS 4361.2- 1998.

A Hazardous Materials Register should be prepared for each ship or structure. The Register should be updated whenever there is a change in the situation, eg some zinc chromate paint is removed. If Hazardous Materials are present and are not to be removed immediately, then a Management Plan should be put in place to ensure people are not exposed to those materials without taking proper precautions. In preparing the Register for Chromium VI it is necessary to survey painted surfaces, usually conducting scratch tests combined with tests using spot test kits, although laboratory analysis of samples is also needed. Such surveys typically cover large areas and may not be adequate on a localised scale. Hence further detailed testing may be called for before any work which involves disturbing paint in a specific area is undertaken. Wet removal techniques and stripers are the preferred methods.

Workers removing paint containing Cr VI must wear Personal Protective Equipment PPE and follow personal hygiene procedures. The importance of paying full attention to rigorous personal hygiene procedures is often overlooked. Getex staff have found that in their experience the importance of this aspect should not be underestimated and should be reinforced with personnel working with Chromium VI on a regular basis.

Removed paint dust, rags and any wash down water must be handled appropriately so that no contamination of the environment occurs.

Spill cleanup procedures and equipment should be available, with personnel trained in their use, prior to work commencing on areas where zinc chromate is present.

Contact GETEX for assistance with Chromium VI, Lead and Hazardous Materials

GETEX operates 24/7. Your call will be handled by experienced people with authority who can help you. We do not use message services.

Formaldehyde (methyl aldehyde)

Formaldehyde

What is Formaldehyde?

Formaldehyde is a gas in its pure form, but when diluted with water, is often used in a liquid form. Formaldehyde is colourless, highly flammable and detectable at 1ppm. It is also known as methanal, methylene oxide, oxymethyline, methylaldehyde, and oxomethane.

What products may contain Formaldehyde?

Formaldehyde is used as a base for resins which are used in wallpaper, paint, waxed paper, pressed wood and permanent press fabrics. Formaldehyde is present in types of glues, fibreboard- for example Medium-density fibreboard (MDF or MDFB), particle board, furniture, textiles and insulation. Formaldehyde is also found in detergents, cosmetics (for example: Quaternium-15 is a preservative found in many cosmetics that releases formaldehyde), domestic chemicals, cigarettes and other tobacco products.

Formaldehyde is a strong antimicrobial agent and is widely used to produce various vaccines for human inoculation.

Formaldehyde is released from products such as carpets and pressed wood products. Burning fuel in homes and vehicle exhaust are sources of formaldehyde. Low ventilation rates within homes and offices may lead to elevated indoor levels than outdoor levels.

What is the critical target of the toxicity of airborne formaldehyde?

The US Department of Health and Human Services Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR) states that the critical target of airborne formaldehyde is the upper respiratory tract, exposed acutely or repeatedly (chronically) under occupational or residential conditions.

A World Health Organization (WHO) working group in 2000, concluded that the predominant symptoms of formaldehyde exposure are irritation of the eyes, nose and throat, together with lachrymation, sneezing, coughing, nausea, dypsnea and finally death, all concentration dependent.

How might exposure to Formaldehyde affect my health?

Persons may be exposed to formaldehyde by inhalation of vapours liberated from aqueous solutions of formaldehyde, from inhaling fumes (cigarettes, gas cookers, open fireplaces and smog) or from direct ingestion of eating/drinking of foods containing formaldehyde.

The Australian Safety and Compensation Council (ASCC) has assigned formaldehyde a carcinogen category number of 2 (A substance which is probably a human carcinogen) when inhaled. The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) concluded that there is limited evidence for carcinogenicity to humans and sufficient evidence for carcinogenicity to animals (Group2A)

The overall total hazard score taking into account both human health and environmental criteria, as determined by the National Pollution Inventory (NPI) is 2.7 on a scale of 0-6 (6 being the worst).

Synergistic Effects

Synergism is an interaction of two or more chemicals which results in an effect that is greater than the sum of their effects taken independently. When chemicals are synergistic, the potential hazards of the chemicals should be re-evaluated, taking their synergistic properties into consideration. For example, Glutaraldehyde and Formaldehyde are much more potent when combined than when used individually, often Glutaraldehyde and Formaldehyde are used together to preserve specimens and as a sterilent or are found together as off-gassing from unsealed particle board shelving, carpets and furnishings. The use of both chemicals (and other sterilents and gases) in an enclosed room with new furnishings could potentially provide significant effects on exposed individuals. Many chemicals used within for example hospital X Ray and operating theatres are individually dangerous, many have unknown synergistic effects and most have Material Safety Data Sheets which will make no mention of potential synergistic effects the use of certain chemicals may have.

What is the airborne exposure limit for Formaldehyde Vapour?

AUSTRALIA:

The Hazardous Substance Information System (HSIS) supplied by the Office of the Australian Safety and Compensation Council provides an eight-hour time weighted average (TWA) exposure limit of 1.2 mg/m3 (1ppm) and short term exposure limit (STEL) of 2.5mg/m3.
In 2006 the National Industrial Chemicals Notification and Assessment Scheme (NICNAS) recommended reducing the TWA to 0.36mg/m3 (0.3ppm) and STEL to 0.72mg/m3.

Canada and the U.S.A

In 1989, Canada recommended a target TWA level of 0.05ppm.

The American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH) have a notice of intent to change to a ceiling limit of 0.3ppm.

The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has set a permissable exposure limit for formaldehyde of 0.75 ppm (for an 8-hour workday, 40-hour work week) and a 15-minute STEL of 2ppm and an 0.5 ppm Action Level. The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) has set a Recommended Exposure Limit (REL) of Ca TWA 0.016 ppm (for a 10- hour workday during a 40-hour workweek) and (a REL ceiling limit) C of 0.1 ppm [15-minute]. All are under currently under review.*

It is interesting to note that the International Programme on Chemical Safety (IPCS) (1989) have recommended that in order to prevent sensory irritation in the general population in ambient air, a air quality guideline value of 0.08ppm is recommended. The WHO adopted this recommendation in 2000.

* Notations:

The OSHA permissible exposure limits (PEL) are TWA concentrations that must not be exceeded during any 8-hour workshift of a 40-hour workweek. A STEL is designated by "ST" preceding the value and is measured over a 15-minute period unless noted otherwise. OSHA ceiling concentrations (designated by "C" preceding the value) must not be exceeded during any part of the workday; if instantaneous monitoring is not feasible, the ceiling must be assessed as a 15-minute TWA exposure.

Action levels indicate the level of a harmful or toxic substance/activity which requires medical surveillance, increased industrial hygiene monitoring, or biological monitoring. Action levels are generally set at one half of the PEL but the actual level may vary from standard to standard. The intent is to identify a level at which the vast majority of randomly sampled exposures will be below the PEL.
The NIOSH recommended exposure limits (RELs) are time-weighted average (TWA) concentrations for up to a 10-hour workday during a 40-hour workweek. A short-term exposure limit (STEL) is designated by "ST" preceding the value; unless noted otherwise, the STEL is a 15-minute TWA exposure that should not be exceeded at any time during a workday. A ceiling REL is designated by "C" preceding the value. Any substance that NIOSH considers to be a potential occupational carcinogen is designated by the notation "Ca."

How can exposure to Formaldehyde be monitored?

Formaldehyde may be determined in occupational air using collection on adsorbent tubes, solvent desorption and HPLC-UV analysis. Detection limits depend upon the amount of air sampled and accuracy is very good. Sometimes passive samplers are used (however little performance data is available).

For adsorbent tube samples, samples are collected using personal sampling pumps that have been calibrated, with sampling devices attached, to within ±5% at the recommended flow rate of 50 mL/min. The sampling devices consist of adsorbent tubes that are contained in commercially available tube holders. The devices are connected to the pumps with flexible, non-crimpable tubing. SKC adsorbent silica gel tubes are commonly used. Analysis of tubes is via HPLC-UV. Other techniques include the use of SKC Passive Samplers (and HPLC-UV) or closed face cassettes.

Other techniques are used for the isolation and concentration of Formaldehyde in environmental samples.

The Assessment of the Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS)

In many cases the first step in planning an Occupational Hygiene Program is to assess the Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS) for all the materials used by an organization, in addition to that of the chemical under investigation, Formaldehyde.

In planning the program, GETEX hygienists must take into account any additive effects of a combination of materials (refer to synergistic effects above), and may also take into account a different time of exposure, for example, a 10 hour working day.

GETEX can help you instigate monitoring and/or devise a site management plan to control your site’s emissions.

The staff at GETEX has many years of experience in airborne hazardous material risk assessments including many projects involving the monitoring and management of VOCs including Formaldehyde, Xylene and Glutaraldehydes. GETEX are ready to recommend & implement cost-effective monitoring programs in any part of Australia and overseas. Together with the administrative assistance and monitoring GETEX can recommend appropriate engineering controls and Personal Respirable Protective Equipment.

Why Choose GETEX?

• Trained Consultants with many years of experience across a broad range of occupational air quality services
• Trained Consultants employed by Getex are members of Australian Institute of Occupational Hygienists, Inc (AIOH)
• GETEX offers specialist occupational hygiene advice, 24 hours/7 days a week.
• GETEX carries full professional indemnity insurance.
  

WE ARE HERE TO HELP

PLEASE PHONE (02) 9889 2488 and VISIT: www.getex.com.au

24 HRS/ 7 DAYS

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Sources of information used in preparing this webpage

• Australian Safety and Compensation Council (2004), Exposure Standard Formaldehyde (accessed April, 2007).
• Environment, Protection and Heritage Council incorporating National Environment Protection Council, National Environment Protection Measures (NEPMs) (accessed April, 2007)
• International Programme on Chemical Safety (IPCS) (accessed April 2007)
• National Pollutant Inventory (NPI),  Department of Environment and Conservation (accessed April, 2007)
• National Industrial Chemicals Notification and Assessment Scheme (www.nicnas.com.au) (accessed April. 2007)
• NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards, NIOSH Publication No. 2005-149, September 2005 (accessed April, 2007)

Glutaraldehyde (1, 5-pentanedial)

Glutaraldehyde

What is Glutaraldehyde?

Glutaraldehyde has fairly small molecules, each with two aldehyde groups, separated by a flexible chain of 3 methylene bridges. Glutaraldehyde or 1, 5-Pentanediol (HOCH₂ (CH₂)₃CH₂OH) is a colourless water-miscible bifunctional alcohol with a boiling point of 242.5°C.

What products may contain Glutaraldehyde?

Glutaraldehyde is used as a hydraulic fluid, lube-oil additive, antifreeze, and in the manufacture of polyester and polyurethane resins used in the synthesis of polyester resins, thermoplastic polyurethanes, plasticizers, pharmaceuticals, crop protection agents and piperidine. Glutaraldehyde is used as a biocide, in disinfectants (for example cold disinfection of endoscopes), as a hardener in X-Ray film processing, and as a fixing agent in electron and light microscopy. The uses above provides opportunity for increased glutaraldehyde volatilization and dermal exposure.

How might exposure to Glutaraldehyde affect my health?

Workers may be exposed by inhalation of vapours liberated from aqueous solutions of glutaraldehyde from 50% to less than 1% and by skin contact with the solutions. The risk of exposure to glutaraldehyde vapours is increased at higher temperatures and/or concentrations and by use in spray form (International Programme on Chemical Safety (IPCS)). The ICPS consider that public exposure and indirect exposure via the environment is minimal. It states that the public is unlikely to be exposed during the use of Glutaraldehyde in its industrial applications, and a short residence time in the environment and a lack of bioaccumulation, makes indirect exposure a minor possibility for exposure via the environment.

IPCS also notes that “as exposure to glutaraldehyde solutions at 1% or higher is frequent, especially in the health care industry, the risk of dermatitis, eye irritation and skin sensitization in workers is significant where skin and eye protection (and local exhaust ventilation) are not provided”.

The ASCC (Australian Safety and Compensation Council (ASCC) formerly the National Occupational Health and Safety Commission or NOHSC) states that Glutaraldehyde produces allergic skin reactions, and confirms that Glutaraldehyde is a skin sensitizer (confirmed by positive responses in patch testing). The ASCC says that “a number of reports of occupational asthma and/or rhinitis have been linked with exposure to glutaraldehyde in the workplace, with some cases concerning workers with no past history of allergic response. Difficulties have arisen in determining whether the response in each case is due to an irritant effect or to an allergic hypersensitivity. The type of allergic mechanism that causes asthma after exposure to glutaraldehyde is not yet known, and no specific antibody has been identified”.
The American Conference of Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH) (2004) has Glutaraldehyde as Category A4 (not classifiable as a human carcinogen).

What is the airborne exposure limit for Glutaraldehyde Vapour?

Australia:

The Hazardous Substance Information System (HSIS) supplied by the Office of the Australian Safety and Compensation Council provides a TWA* of 0.1 parts per million (0.1ppm) and a peak limitation exposure standard of 0.41mg/m3 over 15 minutes. There is no short term exposure limit (STEL). Glutaraldehyde has a strong odour and is said to have an odour threshold of 0.04ppm, in the vapour state. Note: Odour is a poor indicator of toxicity.

* Note: Except for short term exposure limits, or where a peak value has been assigned, the exposure standards for airborne contaminants are expressed as a time-weighted average (TWA) concentration of that substance over an eight-hour working day, for a five-day working week.

U.S.A and U.K

The ACGIH has a notice of Intended Change (NIC) to lower the existing TLV of 0.2 ppm to a TLV ceiling of 0.05ppm.

The British Health and Safety Executive (HSE) has issued a Chemical Hazard Alert Notice in 1997, with a maximum exposure limit (MEL) of 0.05ppm (0.2mg/m3) expressed as a TWA and 0.05ppm (0.2mg/m3) expressed as a 15-min period (STEL). The HSE could not identify a safe level of exposure where it could be certain that there would be no risk of serious health effects. In 1998 a further notice stated that the committee could no longer identify a level which is both safe and practically achievable.

How can exposure to Glutaraldehyde be monitored?

The National Industrial Chemical Notification and Assessments Scheme (NICNAS) recommend that “where there is a significant risk of inhalation of glutaraldehyde vapour an atmospheric monitoring program should be carried out”. Note that NICNAS states “that a product containing more than 0.1% glutaraldehyde is classed as a Hazardous Substance. And that “contact with solutions containing 1% or more glutaraldehyde and inhalation of glutaraldehyde vapours is the most common route for poisoning”.

Glutaraldehyde may be determined in occupational air using collection on adsorbent tubes, solvent desorption and GC/FID and HPLC-UV analysis. Detection limits depend upon the amount of air sampled and accuracy is very good. Sometimes passive samplers are used (however little performance data is available).

For adsorbent tube samples, samples are collected using personal sampling pumps that have been calibrated, with sampling devices attached, to within ±5% at the recommended flow rate of 50 mL/min. The sampling devices consist of adsorbent tubes that are contained in commercially available tube holders. The devices are connected to the pumps with flexible, non-crimpable tubing. SKC adsorbent silica gel tubes are commonly used.

Other techniques are used for the isolation and concentration of Glutaraldehyde in environmental samples.
The Assessment of the Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS)

In many cases the first step in planning an Occupational Hygiene Program is to assess the Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS) for all the materials used by an organization, in addition to that of the chemical under investigation, Glutaraldehyde. In planning the program, GETEX hygienists must take into account any additive effects of a combination of materials, and may also take into account a different time of exposure, for example, a 10 hour working day.

GETEX can help you instigate monitoring and/or devise a site management plan to control your site’s emissions.
The staff at GETEX has many years of experience in airborne hazardous material risk assessments including many projects involving the monitoring and management of VOCs including Glutaraldehyde, Xylene and Formaldehydes. GETEX are ready to recommend & implement cost-effective monitoring programs in any part of Australia and overseas. Together with the administrative assistance and monitoring GETEX can recommend appropriate engineering controls and Personal Respirable Protective Equipment.

Why Choose GETEX?

• Trained Consultants with many years of experience across a broad range of occupational air quality services
• Trained Consultants employed by Getex are members of Australian Institute of Occupational Hygienists, Inc (AIOH)
• GETEX offers specialist occupational hygiene advice, 24 hours/7 days a week.
• GETEX carries full professional indemnity insurance.

 

WE ARE HERE TO HELP

PLEASE PHONE (02) 9889 2488 and VISIT: www.getex.com.au

24 HRS/ 7 DAYS

 

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Sources of information used in preparing this webpage

• National Pollutant Inventory (NPI),  Department of Environment and Conservation (accessed April, 2007)
• National Industrial Chemicals Notification and Assessment Scheme (www.nicnas.com.au) (accessed April. 2007)
• International Programme on Chemical Safety (IPCS) (accessed April 2007)
• Australian Safety and Compensation Council (2004), Exposure Standard Glutaraldehyde (accessed April, 2007).

Silica

GETEX is an Occupational Health and Safety (OH&S) and Environmental services company which provides an integrated range of consulting, monitoring and testing services covering silica and other hazardous materials.

The strategy for controlling the risk associated with silica and other hazardous materials in a particular workplace will vary depending on client needs, site specific issues, the extent, condition and the nature of the hazardous materials and legislative requirements.

What is Silica?

Silica (silicon dioxide) is a naturally occurring mineral with crystalline or free silica being the form most likely to produce harmful effects. Quartz, tridymite and cristobalite are the three most common types of crystalline silica. Fortunately, crystalline silica makes up only a small percentage of total silica materials. Other forms of silica include fibrous silicates such as asbestos.

In 1996 the International Agency for Research (IARC) on Cancer classified crystalline silica dust as a human carcinogen (Group 1).

In 2005 the National Occupational Health & Safety Commission [NOHSC] set guidelines for crystalline silica dust as cristobalite, quartz and tridymite as 0.1mg/m3 respectively. This is likely to be lowered as a review of standards occurring across the world leads to a lower Australian Standard (ACGIH-USA has a standard of 0.05mg/m3 )

What health effects are there?

A lung disease known as Silicosis is caused by repeated or prolonged exposure over many years to crystalline silica as quartz or cristobalite. Silicosis may also result from short-term exposure to very high concentrations. The disease is difficult to detect in its early stages because typically symptoms do not develop until after twenty or more years of constant exposure. The three main methods of diagnosis are: Chest X-rays, work history and lung function tests.

I’m working on a building site, will I be exposed?

If your occupation is associated with or involves mining, sandblasting, road or tunnel construction, demolition, quarrying or manufacturing of clay, stone or glass products then exposure to silica will typically be a hazard. Silica is found in common building products such as clay bricks, tiles, fibro cement and concrete in addition to rocks and sandstone. If these products are cut in such a way as to create fine particles of silica in the air then a potential hazard will exist.

How can I or my employer control potential exposure to Silica Dust at Work?

If you’re an employer (of even a small business), you are obligated by the NSW Occupational Health and Safety Act 2000 to ensure that employees are not exposed to silica dust. If you’re an employee discuss your concerns with an appropriate member of management, a member of an OH&s Committee, OH&s offi er or site union representative. In all cases, it is recommended that you consider the following control measures in combination with each other.

• Substitution- Substitute silica sand for less toxic substances
• Engineering Controls- Dust extraction devices, local ventilation systems, tools with water attachments and water dispersal systems
• House Keeping- regular wet wiping of surfaces, specialist vacuuming programs, wet sweeping and vacuuming of clothes prior to removal
• Respiratory Equipment- to be relied upon only after all other preventative solutions have been considered and implemented.

What can Getex do to help?

Silicosis is caused by exposure to respirable sized particles of crystalline silica, i.e. particles less than approximately 7 micrometers. Particle size, shape and concentration together with the length of time a person is exposed directly relate to the risk and severity of the damage an individual can experience. Only a competent person should undertake the monitoring of dust levels. When monitoring is undertaken it should be taken into consideration that exposure levels can be extremely variable (especially construction sites and factories) and air sampling by itself is not enough to indicate health risks.

The staff at GETEX has many years of experience in airborne hazardous material risk assessments including many projects involving the monitoring and management of respirable silica levels. GETEX are ready to recommend & implement cost-effective monitoring programs in any part of Australia and overseas. Together with the administrative assistance and monitoring GETEX can recommend appropriate engineering controls and Personal Respirable Protective Equipment.

Download the Silica Information Sheet (PDF)

Synonyms

cinnamene, cinnamenol, Ethenylbenzene, ethenyl benzene, NCI-C02200, phenylethene, phenylethylene, styrene monomer, styrol, styrole, styrolene, vinylbenzol, and vinylbenzene

Styrene

What is Styrene?

Styrene is a clear colourless solvent that is derived from natural gas and petroleum products. It is primarily synthetic but does occur naturally. The fibreglass reinforced plastics industry uses Styrene widely. In this industry most polyester resins that are used (approximately 40-60%) contain substantial amounts of styrene. Styrene can enter the body through the lungs or the skin and is considered a major hazard. The health of workers over both the short and long term can be potentially damaged by exposure to styrene.

Physical properties of styrene:

• Air is lighter that Styrene vapour. At concentrations normally encountered in the workplace, the air and styrene mixture is not significantly heavier than clean air.
• Styrene can be smelled at very low concentrations. Prolonged exposure to styrene reduces a person’s ability to smell it.
• Styrene evaporates more rapidly at high temperatures (e.g. the evaporation rate at 30° C is twice that at 20 ° C).

Is Styrene dangerous?

Styrene is a volatile, highly flammable compound. All resins containing liquid styrene, styrene and styrene vapours are ighly flammable. All sources of ignition must be removed from areas where these materials are used or stored (of course no smoking is permitted).  Safety measures may also include the use of non-sparking ventilation fans and electrical equipment. Reference should be made to The Occupational Health and Safety Regulation 2001, under the Occupational Health and Safety Act 2000, as these cover the storage of flammable liquid¹.

As styrene vapour is heavier than air, it may travel some distance to an ignition source and
flash back.

• Resins and liquid styrene should be stored in a cool, dry, well ventilated area, out of direct sunlight and in a part of the workplace separate from the production area.
• Resins and liquid styrene should be stored away from possible sources of ignition.
• Containers containing styrene compounds must be adequately labeled and tightly closed when not in use.

How is Styrene Produced?

Styrene is produced by the dehydrogenation of ethylbenzene in the presence of polymerization inhibitors.

What products may contain Styrene?

When it is linked together in long chains, or polymerised, styrene is used:

• in the production of :

• polystyrene plastics and resins, e.g. insulation or in the fabrication of fibreglass boats,
• as a solvent for synthetic rubber and resins,
• the manufacturing of synthetic rubber,
• in the production of propylene oxide.

Products produced from styrene include car parts, carpet backing, drinking cups and other food-use items, electrical and thermal insulation packaging, fibreglass, and pipes.

Sources of emissions

Styrene is emitted to air from:

• Industrial processes that use or manufacture the material or where it is formed as a by-product.
• Cigarette smoke.
• car exhaust

How might I be exposed to Styrene?

Exposure to Styrene can be by contact with pure styrene or substances containing styrene, breathing the vapours, or by eating or drinking foods containing or contaminated by styrene. People working in various styrene industries and smokers can have potentially high exposures to styrene.

How might Styrene enter my body?

• By absorption into the blood through the lungs, stomach, skin or eyes.
• Styrene liquid is soluble in body fat and can be absorbed through the skin; however, styrene present in polyester resin is not easily absorbed through the skin.
• Inhalation is therefore the major route of exposure.

How might exposure to Styrene affect my health?

Short Term Health Effects of Exposure to Styrene Vapours

• Irritation of eyes and mucous membranes.
• Dizziness, headache and fatigue
• Slower reaction times, reduced manual dexterity, and impaired co-ordination and balance
• Styrene liquid defats the skin and can cause dermatitis.
• Styrene liquid can cause mild to severe irritation of the eyes if splashing occurs.

Long Term Health Effects of Exposure to Styrene Vapours

• Repeated exposure to styrene vapours can have an effect on the central nervous system.
• The International Association for Research into Cancer (IARC) classifies styrene as 'possibly carcinogenic to humans (Group 2B)'.

What is the airborne exposure limit for Styrene Vapour?

Australia:

The Hazardous Substance Information System (HSIS) supplied by the Office of the Australian Safety and Compensation Council provides an eight-hour time weighted average (TWA) exposure limit of 213mg/m3 (50ppm) and short term exposure limit (STEL) of 426mg/m3 (100ppm) for the styrene monomer.

U.S.A:

In May 1997, The American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH) established a 20ppm threshold limit value (TLV) for styrene in place of its existing 50ppm TLV guidance and a STEL of 40ppm.
The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) have set a permissible exposure limit (PEL) for Styrene for general industry of 100ppm (for an 8-hour workday, 40-hour work week). The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) has a Recommended Exposure Limit (REL): of 215 mg/m3 TWA (50ppm) and 425 mg/m3 STEL (100ppm)

How can exposure to Styrene be monitored?

Atmospheric monitoring

• Should be carried out initially to determine workers’ exposure; and
• Subsequently if changes are introduced in the workplace likely to affect the level of styrene vapour.

Any measurements taken need to be representative of environmental conditions (especially ambient temperature) and changes in these conditions may require further monitoring to be carried out.

What does Atmospheric monitoring of Styrene involve?

Atmospheric monitoring involves measuring the concentration of styrene vapour either in:

• A worker’s breathing zone (personal samples); or
• At selected points in the factory (static samples).

Atmospheric monitoring can be used to determine:

• The extent of worker exposure and if any control measures are needed;
• The effectiveness of existing control measures (if any); and
• The effect of any changes made in the workplace (such as new control measures).
                 
There is a range of atmospheric monitoring devices available, including Absorbent tubes, Passive devices and Detector tubes.
Monitoring should be carried out by a person with appropriate training.

The Assessment of the Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS)
In many cases the first step in planning an Occupational Hygiene Program is to assess the Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS) for all the materials used by an organization, in addition to that of the chemical under investigation, Styrene.
In planning the program, GETEX hygienists must take into account any additive effects of a combination of materials (refer to synergistic effects above), and may also take into account a different time of exposure, for example, a 10 hour working day.

GETEX can help you instigate monitoring and/or devise a site management plan to control your site’s emissions.

The staff at GETEX has many years of experience in airborne hazardous material risk assessments including many projects involving the monitoring and management of VOCs including Styrene, Xylene, Glutaraldehydes and Formaldehyde. GETEX are ready to recommend & implement cost-effective monitoring programs in any part of Australia and overseas. Together with the administrative assistance and monitoring GETEX can recommend appropriate engineering controls and Personal Respirable Protective Equipment.

Why Choose GETEX?

• Trained Consultants with many years of experience across a broad range of occupational air quality services
• Trained Consultants employed by Getex are members of Australian Institute of Occupational Hygienists, Inc (AIOH)
• GETEX offers specialist occupational hygiene advice, 24 hours/7 days a week.
• GETEX carries full professional indemnity insurance.

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¹ In 2003 a review of the regulation of dangerous goods led to major reform. The regulation of the storage and handling of most classes of dangerous goods now come within the Occupational Health and Safety Regulation 2001, under the Occupational Health and Safety Act 2000. Explosives come under the Explosives Act 2003 and the Explosives Regulation 2005. The previous legislation, the Dangerous Goods Act 1975 and the Dangerous Goods (General) Regulation 1999, has been repealed.

The effect of these reforms was to place dangerous goods within a risk management framework, consistent with all other types of hazards found within workplaces. The Code of practice for the storage and handling of dangerous goods 2005 provides advice on applying this risk management framework to dangerous goods. These principles are extended to include aspects of public safety.
The changes are based upon the National Standard for the Storage and Handling of Workplace Dangerous Goods, produced by the National Occupational Health and Safety Commission in 2001.

The following legislation is in place: OHS Amendment (Dangerous Goods) Act 2003 and the supporting OHS Amendment (Dangerous Goods) Regulation 2005. These changes have been incorporated into Chapter 6A of the OHS Regulation 2001. Explosives Act 2003 and the supporting Explosives Regulation 2005

Note - the storage and handling of combustible liquids (as defined by Australian Standard 1940: 2004) are also regulated under this legislation.

Toluene

What is Toluene?

Toluene is a liquid composed of 7 carbon atoms and 8 hydrogen atoms, configured in a 6 atom ring shape with a single atom appendix (CH₃C₆H₅). All substances with a basic ring structure are called aromatic hydrocarbons, as they often have a characteristic “aromatic” smell. Also called methylbenzene.

What products may contain Toluene?

Toluene is a major aromatic constituent of petrol. Toluene is used in household aerosols, nail polish, paints and paint thinners, lacquers, rust inhibitor, adhesives and solvent based cleaning agents.

What are some main emission sources of Toluene?

Sources of toluene emissions to air include: motor vehicles, aircraft, petrol-fuelled implements (such as edgers, blowers and lawn mowers); industries such as rubber manufacturers, petroleum and chemical refineries; manufacturers (and users) of paint, varnishes and laquers; and processes which include for example metal degreasing and printing. The use of Tobacco is also a major source. Monitoring should be considered in any location (such as service stations, manufacturing plants) where the above emissions may collect and where exposure to Toluene may be a possibility.

What is the Primary Target of Toluene and how might this affect my health?

The US Environmental Protection Agency states that “the central nervous system (CNS) is the primary target organ for toluene toxicity for acute (short-term) and chronic (long-term) exposures. CNS dysfunction and narcosis have been frequently observed in humans acutely exposed to toluene by inhalation; symptoms include fatigue, sleepiness, headaches, and nausea. Chronic inhalation exposure of humans to toluene also causes irritation of the upper respiratory tract and eyes, sore throat, dizziness, and headache”. The EPA website also makes reference to serious human developmental effects, however it continues on to state that “these studies are not conclusive due to many confounding variables” (more information can be found on the EPA Health Statement (http://www.epa.gov/ttn/atw/hlthef/toluene.html).

The US EPA has classified toluene as a Group D, not classifiable as to human carcinogenicity.

What is the airborne exposure limit for Toluene Vapour?

The Hazardous Substance Information System (HSIS) supplied by the Office of the Australian Safety and Compensation Council provides an eight (8) hour time weighted average (TWA) exposure limit of 50 parts per million (50ppm) and a short term exposure limit (STEL) of 150 parts per million (150ppm). Note that the odour threshold for toluene in air is said to be about 80 parts per billion (ppb), which is about 500 times lower than the level permitted in the workplace. In water, it can be tasted and smelled at a level of 40 ppb.

How might I be exposed to Toluene?

Consumers are most likely to be exposed to toluene by smoking or using consumer products containing toluene (paints, varnish, nail polish, paint cleaners, stain removers, etc.) particularly in areas with poor ventilation. Because toluene is used in many consumer products, and found in tobacco smoke, short-term indoor concentrations may be elevated above the levels considered safe for workers. Workers in the industries that use or produce toluene are at risk of exposure. Consumers can also be exposed to toluene by exposure to emissions from production and processing facilities using toluene, and automotive exhaust. Sniffing glue or paint can also lead to high exposures.

Toluene enters the body predominantly by breathing in contaminated air or tobacco smoke. It may also enter the body if food or water is consumed or if liquid toluene comes into contact with the skin.

How can exposure to Toluene be monitored?

Toluene may be determined in occupational air using collection on adsorbent tubes, solvent desorption and GC/FID analysis. Detection limits depend upon the amount of air sampled and accuracy is very good. Sometimes passive samplers are used (however little performance data is available).

For adsorbent tube samples, samples are collected using personal sampling pumps that have been calibrated, with sampling devices attached, to within ±5% at the recommended flow rate of 50 mL/min. The sampling devices consist of adsorbent tubes that are contained in commercially available tube holders. The devices are connected to the pumps with flexible, non-crimpable tubing. SKC adsorbent charcoal tubes are commonly used, they contain 100 mg of adsorbent in the front section and 50 mg in the back section.

Gas Purge and trap is the most widely used method for the isolation and concentration of VOCs in environmental samples.

The Assessment of the Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS)

In many cases the first step in planning an Occupational Hygiene Program is to assess the Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS) for all the materials used by an organization, in addition to that of the chemical under investigation, Toluene. In planning the program, GETEX hygienists must take into account any additive effects of a combination of materials, and may also take into account a different time of exposure, for example, a 10 hour working day.

GETEX can help you instigate monitoring and/or devise a site management plan to control your site’s emissions

The staff at GETEX have many years of experience in airborne hazardous material risk assessments including many projects involving the monitoring and management of VOCs including Toluene, Xylene and Formaldehydes. GETEX is ready to recommend and implement cost-effective monitoring programs in any part of Australia and overseas. Together with the administrative assistance and monitoring, GETEX can recommend appropriate engineering controls and Personal Respirable Protective Equipment.

Why Choose GETEX?

• Trained Consultants with many years of experience across a broad range of occupational air quality services
• Trained Consultants employed by Getex are members of Australian Institute of Occupational Hygienists, Inc (AIOH)
• GETEX offers specialist occupational hygiene advice , 24 hours/7 days a week.
• GETEX carries full professional indemnity insurance
  
  

WE ARE HERE TO HELP

PLEASE PHONE (02) 9889 2488 and VISIT: www.getex.com.au

24 HRS/ 7 DAYS

---

Sources of information used in preparing this webpage

• National Pollutant Inventory (NPI),  Department of Environment and Conservation (accessed April, 2007)
• Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (1989), Public Health Statement Toluene (accessed April, 2007)
• Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (2000), ToxFAQS Toluene (accessed April, 2007)
• US Environmental Protection Agency and the Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards (2000), Chemical summary for Toluene (accessed April, 2007)
• Australian Safety and Compensation Council (2004), Exposure Standard Toluene (accessed April, 2007).

Volatile Organic Compounds, VOCs

Organic compounds in general are those that contain carbon and hydrogen, and originate from life forms. Typical compounds are petroleum, toluene, benzene, phenolics, ketones such as methyl isobutyl ketone (MIBK), aldehydes, and esters such as methyl methacrylate. Quite a number of these have a strong odour. Some are quite toxic while others have a low toxicity. Organic compounds with smaller molecules are usually volatile, that is their vapour fi lls the air space around the solid or liquid organic compound. This vapour may be explosive, or it may provide a route for inhalation or skin contact with resultant adverse health effects.

Adverse health effects can be acute, that is observable immediately, or chronic, that is long term. Consequently exposure guidelines usually contain a combination of short term and longer term measures. The short term is expressed as a Short Term Exposure Limit (STEL), measured over 10 or 15 minutes, while the longer term is expressed as an 8 hour Time Weighted Average (TWA). Exposure standards for most VOCs are given in mg/m3 of air. The 8 hour TWA is derived by assuming that a person works 8 hours a day, 5 days a week. If someone works a different schedule the allowable standard must be recalculated. Assumptions of what is still a quite common working week can result in the allowable TWA being reduced to near half the 8 hour 5 day TWA.

There are several methods for measuring VOCs. Some are more sensititive or compound specifi c than others, and naturally the cost of the measurement depends on how accurate or specific the method is.

Measurement

A common method is to adsorb any volatile materials onto a selected medium contained in a tube. This is done by drawing a measured volume of air through the tube using a calibrated constant volume air sampling pump. The air flow rate must be suffi ciently slow so that the VOC has time to adsorb onto the medium in the tube. The tube’s contents are then analysed for either the specifi c compound of interest or for a scan of VOCs in general. Each VOC can be individually identifi ed, quantified and the calculated concentration in air compared with the exposure standard. To check that all the VOCs in the sampled air have been adsorbed, the contents of the tube are divided into two sections, front and back, and each section is analysed separately. If VOC is detected in the rear section then there has been breakthrough and the results may understate the real amount of VOC in the air. This method works well for an 8 hour TWA but may not have suffi cient sensitivity for detection of VOC from a sampling time of 15 minutes to determine the STEL. Other related methods involve a number of variations such as sampling and analysing cylinders of air. A simple method suitable for measuring short term concentration is to draw air through a colorimetric tube.

A different approach is to use an instrument fi tted with a Photo Ionisation Detector, PID. This is akin to an electronic nose. The instrument detects over 300 compounds, but it does not respond equally to all of them, so it has limited value in assessing a mixture of VOCs. If the air contains only one VOC then a factor can be applied to calculate the concentration of that particular compound. The PID is usually calibrated to isobutylene and the correction factors are usually given in relation to the response to isobutylene. Most PIDs are fi tted with a lamp of a standard electron voltage, but for assessing semi volatile organic compounds, that is heavier compounds, a different lamp is required. An advantage of a PID is that the reading is real time, and the instrument can be set to datalog changes over time.

Download the Volatile Organic Compounds Information Sheet (PDF)

Xylene

What is Xylene?

Xylenes (dimethylbenzenes) are volatile solvents widely used in chemical synthesis, consumer
Products  and agricultural chemicals. Xylene exists as a mixture of three isomeric forms: i.e. ortho, meta and para isomers. Mixed xylenes are colorless flammable liquids that are practically insoluble in water and have a sweet odour (the odour threshold for m-xylene is 1.1 ppm). The chemical formula for mixed xylenes is C₈H₁₀, and the molecular weight is 106.16 g/mol.

The commercial product is a mixture of all three isomers with m-xylene predominating, usually 60-70%.  The technical product, "mixed xylenes", contains approximately 40% m-xylene and 20% each of ethylbenzene,  o-xylene and  p-xylene.  Small quantities of toluene and C9 aromatic fractions may also be present.

Chemical Formula

C8H10

C8H10

C8H10

Chemical Structure

Chemical Name

ortho-xylene           meta-xylene           para-xylene

Synonyms

Xylene is also known as dimethylbenzene, methyltoluene, xylol, ortho-xylene, meta-xylene, para-xylene and xylene (non-specific name).

What products may contain Xylene?

Mixed xylenes are used in the production of ethylbenzene, as solvents in products used in the printing, rubber and leather industries such as paints paint thinners and coatings, and are blended into petrol. It occurs naturally in petroleum and coal tar.

What are some main emission sources of Xylene?

Sources of xylene emissions to air include: petrol, motor vehicle exhaust, petroleum refineries and terminals, service stations, lawnmowers and other petrol fuelled implements. Xylenes are used in the manufacture of chemicals, polyester, paints, dyes, lacquers and wood burning stoves and fire. The uses above provide opportunity for increased xylene volatilization.

What is the airborne exposure limit for Xylene Vapour?

The Hazardous Substance Information System (HSIS) supplied by the Office of the Australian Safety and Compensation Council (ASCC) provides an eight (8) hour time weighted average (TWA) exposure limit of 80 parts per million (80ppm) and a short term exposure limit (STEL) of 150 parts per million (150ppm), to minimize sensory irritation to most workers. ASCC states that these levels should also be low enough to protect the workers from narcotic and other chronic health effects.

What is the Primary Target of Xylene and how might this affect my health?

The Primary Target Organs following Inhalation Exposure is that of the Central Nervous System (CNS) i.e. Chronic Occupational exposure to xylene has been associated with headache, EKG abnormalities, altered memory and confusion. Xylene is absorbed following oral, dermal, or inhalation exposure; can be stored in adipose tissue; and is eliminated in the urine after conjugation with glycine.

The Acute effects of exposure to xylenes include dyspnea and irritation of the nose and throat; gastrointestinal effects such as nausea, vomiting, and gastric discomfort; mild transient eye irritation; and neurological effects such as impaired short-term memory, impaired reaction time, performance decrements in numerical ability, and alterations in equilibrium and body balance. It is apparent that all isomers or mixtures of isomers produce similar effects although specific isomers may not be equally potent in producing the effects. Greater additive respiratory and neurological toxicity is shown when exposure is to a mixture of toluene and xylenes.
Hand immersion studies with m-xylene have shown transient irritation, redness, dryness, and scaling of the skin
The Chronic effects of exposure to xylenes, as seen in occupational settings, has resulted primarily in neurological effects such as headache, dizziness, fatigue, tremors, incoordination, anxiety, impaired short-term memory, and inability to concentrate.  Labored breathing, impaired pulmonary function, increased heart palpitation, severe chest pain, abnormal EKG, and possible effects on the kidneys have also been reported.

The US Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR) has calculated a chronic inhalation minimal risk level (MRL) of 0.4 mg/m3 (0.1 parts per million [ppm]) for mixed xylenes based on neurological effects in occupationally exposed workers.  The MRL is an estimate of the daily human exposure to a hazardous substance that is likely to be without appreciable risk of adverse noncancer health effects over a specified duration of exposure.

The U.S. EPA (1992) has placed xylene in weight-of-evidence group D, not classifiable as to human carcinogenicity, based on no significant increases in the incidence of tumors observed in rats or mice of both sexes following oral administration of technical grade xylene.

How might I be exposed to Xylene?

Consumers are most likely to be exposed to xylenes by using consumer products containing toluene especially if there is not good ventilation, including petrol, paint, varnish, rust preventatives and cigarette smoke. Workers in the industries that use or produce xylene are at risk of exposure, these include: Painters and paint industry workers, biomedical laboratory workers, distillers of xylene, wood processing plant workers, service station and car maintenance workers, metal workers and furniture refinishers. Consumers can also be exposed to xylene by exposure to air from production and processing facilities using xylene, and automotive exhaust.

Xylene is readily absorbed after oral and inhalation administration. Several studies with humans exposed by inhalation to xylene at concentrations of 100-1300 mg/m3 have shown that approximately 60% of the xylene present in inspired air is absorbed by the lungs, regardless of the isomer or mixture used (U.S. EPA, 1985). Dermal absorption is minor following exposure to xylene vapour, representing only 1-2% of that absorbed by the lungs. However, dermal absorption may be significant if liquid xylene contacts the skin (U.S. EPA, 1985).

It has been documented that chronic occupational exposure by laboratory technicians to xylene has resulted in associated symptoms including chronic headache, chest pain, electrocardiographic abnormalities, dyspnea, cyanosis of hands, fever, leukopenia, malaise, impaired lung function, and confusion.

How can exposure to Xylene be monitored?

Biological exposure monitoring (or health surveillance) to mixed xylenes may be determined by measuring the breakdown products of mixed xylenes in the urine or by measuring levels of xylene in blood or exhaled breath.

Xylene may be determined in occupational air using collection on adsorbent tubes, solvent desorption and GC/FID analysis. Detection limits depend upon the amount of air sampled and accuracy is very good. There are commercially available badges based on passive charcoal sampling.  After extraction with carbon disulfide the xylenes can be detected by gas chromatography.

For adsorbent tube samples, samples are collected using personal sampling pumps that have been calibrated, with sampling devices attached, to within ±5% at the recommended flow rate of 50 mL/min. The sampling devices consist of adsorbent tubes that are contained in commercially available tube holders. The devices are connected to the pumps with flexible, non-crimpable tubing. SKC adsorbent charcoal tubes are commonly used, they contain 100 mg of adsorbent in the front section and 50 mg in the back section.

The Assessment of the Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS)

In many cases the first step in planning an Occupational Hygiene Program is to assess the Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS) for all the materials used by an organization, in addition to that of the chemical under investigation, Xylene. In planning the program, GETEX hygienists must take into account any additive effects of a combination of materials, and may also take into account a different time of exposure, for example, a 10 hour working day.

GETEX can help you instigate monitoring and/or devise a site management plan to control your site’s emissions.

The staff at GETEX has many years of experience in airborne hazardous material risk assessments including many projects involving the monitoring and management of VOCs including Xylene, Toluene and Formaldehydes. GETEX are ready to recommend & implement cost-effective monitoring programs in any part of Australia and overseas. Together with the administrative assistance and monitoring GETEX can recommend appropriate engineering controls and Personal Respirable Protective Equipment.

Why Choose GETEX?

• Trained Consultants with many years of experience across a broad range of occupational air quality services
• Trained Consultants employed by Getex are members of Australian Institute of Occupational Hygienists, Inc (AIOH)
• GETEX offers specialist occupational hygiene advice , 24 hours/7 days a week.
• GETEX carries full professional indemnity insurance
  
  

WE ARE HERE TO HELP

PLEASE PHONE (02) 9889 2488 and VISIT: www.getex.com.au

24 HRS/ 7 DAYS

---

Sources of information used in preparing this webpage

• National Pollutant Inventory (NPI),  Department of Environment and Conservation (accessed April, 2007)
• Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (1989), Public Health Statement Xylene (accessed April, 2007)
• Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (2000), ToxFAQS Xylene (accessed April, 2007)
• US Environmental Protection Agency and the Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards (2000), Chemical summary for Xylene (accessed April, 2007)
• Australian Safety and Compensation Council (2004), Exposure Standard Xylene (accessed April, 2007)